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Governor Phillip wasThe new boundary included Melville and Bathurst Islands, and the adjacent mainland. In xxxx, the British claim was extended to the whole Australian continent when Major Edmund Lockyer established a settlement on King George Sound (the basis of the later town of Albany), but the eastern border of Western Australia remained unchanged at Longitude 129 deg East. In xxxx, a penal colony was established near the mouth of the Brisbane River (the basis of the later colony of Queensland). In xxxx, the Swan River Colony and its capital of Perth were founded on the west coast proper and also assumed control of King George Sound. Initially a free colony, Western Australia later accepted British convicts, becauseThe colony of South Australia was settled in xxxx, with its western and eastern boundaries set at 132 deg and 141 deg East of Greenwich, and to the north at latitude 26 deg South.[129] The western and eastern boundary points were chosen as they marked the extent of coastline first surveyed by Matthew Flinders in xxxx (Nicolas Baudin's priority being ignored). The northern boundary was set at the parallel of latitude 26 deg South by the British Parliament because that was considered to be the limit of effective control of territory that could be exercised by a settlement founded on the shores of Gulf St Vincent; the South Australian Company had proposed the parallel of 20 deg South, later reduced to the Tropic of Capricorn (the parallel of latitude 23 deg 37 min South).[130] of an acute labour shortage. vested with complete authority over the inhabitants of the colony. Enlightened for his Age, Phillip's personal intent was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony. Phillip and several of his officers?most notably Watkin Tench?left behind journals and accounts of which tell of immense hardships during the first years of settlement. Often Phillip's officers despaired for the future of New South Wales. Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from overseas were scarce. Between xxxx and xxxx about xxxx male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney?many "professional criminals" with few of the skills required for the establishment of a colony. Many new arrivals were also sick In xxxx?99 George Bass and Matthew Flinders set out from Sydney in a sloop and circumnavigated Tasmania, thus proving it to be an island.[163] In xxxx?02 Matthew Flinders in The Investigator led the first circumnavigation of Australia. Aboard ship was the Aboriginal explorer Bungaree, of the Sydney district, who became the first person born on the Australian continent to circumnavigate the Australian continent.[163] Previously, the famous Bennelong and a companion had become the first people born in the area of New South Wales to sail for Europe, when, in xxxx they accompanied Governor Phillip to England and were presented toIn xxxx, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Wentworth succeeded in crossing the formidable barrier of forested gulleys and sheer cliffs presented by the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney. At Mount Blaxland they looked out over "enough grass to support the stock of the colony for thirty years", and expansion of the British settlement into the interioIn xxxx the Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane, commissioned Hamilton Hume and former Royal Navy Captain William Hovell to lead an expedition to find new grazing land in the south of the colony, and also to find an answer to the mystery of where New South Wales' western rivers flowed. Over 16 weeks in xxxx?25, Hume and Hovell journeyed to Port Phillip and back. They made many important discoveries including the Murray River (which they named the Hume), many of its tributaries, and good agricultural and grazing lands between Gunning, New South Wales and Corio Bay, Port Phillip.[165]r could begin.[164] King George III.[163]or unfit for work and the conditions of healthy convicts only deteriorated with hard labour and poor sustenance in the settlement. The food situation reached crisis point in xxxx and the Second Fleet which finally arrived in June xxxx had lost a quarter of its 'passengers' through sickness, while the condition of the convicts of the Third Fleet appalled Phillip. From xxxx however, the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and iPhillip sent exploratory missions in search of better soils, fixed on the Parramatta region as a promising area for expansion, and moved many of the convicts from late xxxx to establish a small township, which became the main centre of the colony's economic life. This left Sydney Cove only as an important port and focus of social life. Poor equipment and unfamiliar soils and climate continued to hamper the expansion of farming from Farm Cove to Parramatta and Toongabbie, but a building programme, assisted by convict labour, advanced steadily. Between xxxx and xxxx, convicts and their gaolers made up the majority of the population?but after this, a population of emancipated convicts began to grow who could be granted land and these people pioneered a non-government private sector economy and were later joined by soldiers whose military service had expired?and finally, free settlers who began arriving from Britain. Governor Phillip departed the colony for England on 11 December xxxx, with the new settlement having survived near starvation and immense isolation for four years[122] On 16 February xxxx the first free settlers arrived. The settlers : Thomas Rose, with his wife and four children, Edward Powell, Thomas Webb, Joseph Webb,After the founding of the colony of New South Wales in xxxx, Australia was divided into an eastern half, named New South Wales, under the administration of the colonial government in Sydney, and a western half named New Holland. The western boundary of 135° East of Greenwich was based on the Complete Map of the Southern Continent, published in Emanuel Bowen's Complete System of Geography (London xxxx), and reproduced in John Campbell's editions of John Harris' Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca, or Voyages and Travels (xxxx?48, and xxxx). Bowen's map was based on one by Melchisédech Thévenot and published in Relations des Divers Voyages (xxxx), which apparently divided New Holland in the west from Terra Australis in the east by a latitude staff situated at 135 deg East. This division, reproduced in Bowen's map, provided a convenient western boundary for the British claim because, as Watkin Tench subsequently commented in A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay, "By this partition, it may be fairly presumed, that every source of future litigation between the Dutch and us, will be for ever cut off, as the discoveries of English navigators only are comprized in this territory".[124] Thévenot said he copied his map from the one engraved in the floor of the Amsterdam Town Hall, but in that map there was no dividing line between New Holland and Terra Australis. Thévenot's map was actually copied from Joan Blaeu's map, Archipelagus Orientalis sive Asiaticus, published in xxxx in the Kurfürsten Atlas (Atlas of the Great Elector); this map was a part of Blaeu's world map of xxxx, Nova et Accuratissima Terrarum Orbis Tabula, which first showed the land revealed by Abel Tasman's xxxx voyage as Hollandia Nova and which served as the basis for the Amsterdam Town Hall pavement map.[125] Longitude 135 deg East reflected the line of division between the claims of Spain and Portugal established in the Treaty of Tordesillas in xxxx, which had formed the basis of many subsequent claims to colonial territory. An Historical Narrative of the Discovery oBetween xxxx and xxxx, approximately 161,700 convicts (of whom 25,000 were women) were transported to the Australian colonies of New South Wales, Van Diemen's land and Western Australia.[131] Historian Lloyd Robson has estimated that perhaps two-thirds were thieves from working class towns, particularly from the Midlands and north of England. The majority were repeat offenders.[132] Whether transportation managed to achieve its goal of reforming or not, some convicts were able to leave the prison system in Australia; after xxxx they could gain "tickets of leave" for good behaviour and be assigned to work for free men for wages. A few went on to have successful lives as emancipists, having been pardoned at the end of their sentence. FemaleSome convicts, particularly Irish convicts, had been transported to Australia for political crimes or social rebellion, so authorities were consequently suspicious of the Irish and restricted the practice of Catholicism in Australia. The Irish led Castle Hill Rebellion of xxxx served to increase suspicions and repression.[133] Church of England clergy meanwhile worked closely with the governors and Richard Johnson, chaplain to the First Fleet was charged by Governor Arthur Phillip, with improving "public morality" in the colony and was also heavily involved in health and education.[134] The Reverend Samuel Marsden (xxxx?xxxx) had magisterial duties, and so was equated with the authorities by the convicts, becoming known as the 'flogging parson' for the sThe New South Wales Corps was formed in England in xxxx as a permanent regiment to relieve the marines who had accompanied the First Fleet. Officers of the Corps soon became involved in the corrupt and lucrative rum trade in the colony. In the Rum Rebellion of xxxx, the Corps, working closely with the newly established wool trader John Macarthur, staged the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history, deposing Governor William Bligh and instigating a brief period of military rule in the colony prior to the arrival from Britain of GovernorMacquarie served as the last autocratic Governor of New South Wales, from xxxx to xxxx and had a leading role in the social and economic development of New South Wales which saw it transition from a penal colony to a budding free society. He established public works, a bank, churches, and charitable institutions and sought good relations with the Aborigines. In xxxx he sent Blaxland, Wentworth and Lawson across the Blue Mountains, where they found the great plains of the interior.[137] Central, however to Macquarie's policy was his treatment of the emancipists, whom he decreed should be treated as social equals to free-settlers in the colony. Against opposition, he appointed emancipists to key government positions including Francis Greenway as colonial architect and William Redfern as a magistrate. London judged his public works to be too expensive and society was scandalised by his treatment of emancipists.[138] Egalitarianism would come to be considered a central The first five Governors of New South Wales realised the urgent need to encourage free settlers, but the British government remained largely indifferent. As early as xxxx, Governor Arthur Phillip wrote; "Your lordship will see by my...letters the little progress we have been able to make in cultivating the lands ... At present this settlement only affords one person that I can employ in cultivating the lands..."[139] It was not until the xxxxs that numbers of free settlers began to arrive and government schemes began to be introduced to encourage free settlers. Philanthropists Caroline Chisholm and John Dunmore Lang developed their own migration schemes. Land grants of crown land were made by Governors, and settlement schemes such as those of Edward Gibbon Wakefield carried some weight in encouraging migrants to make the long voyage to Australia, as opposed to Early colonial administrations were anxious to address the gender imbalance in the population brought about by the importation of large numbers of convict men. Between xxxx and xxxx, around xxxx male to 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney.[141] Women came to play an important role in education and welfare during colonial times. Governor Macquarie's wife, Elizabeth Macquarie took an interest in convict women's welfare.[142] Her contemporary Elizabeth Macarthur was noted for her 'feminine strength' in assisting the establishment of the Australian merino wool industry during her husband John Macarthur's enforced absence from the colony following the Rum Rebellion.[143] The Catholic Sisters of Charity arriving in xxxx and set about pastoral care in a women's prison, visiting hospitals and schools and establishing employment for convict women.[144] The sisters went on to establish hospitals in four of the eastern states, beginning with St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney in xxxx as a free hospital for all people, but especially for the poor.[145] Caroline Chisholm (xxxx?xxxx) established a migrant women's shelter and worked for women's welfare in the colonies in the xxxxs. Her humanitarian efforts later won her fame in England and great influence in achieving support for families in the colony.[146] Sydney's first Catholic Bishop, John Bede Polding founded an Australian order of nuns?the Sisters of the Good Samaritan?in 1From the xxxxs, increasing numbers of squatters[152] occupied land beyond the fringes of European settlement. Often running sheep on large stations with relatively few overheads, squatters could make considerable profits. By xxxx, nearly 2 million kilograms of wool were being exported to Britain from Australia.[153] By xxxx, barely 2,000 squatters had gained 30 million hectares of land, and they formed a powerful and "respectable" interestIn xxxx, the British Colonial Office issued the Proclamation of Governor Bourke, implementing the legal doctrine of terra nullius upon which British settlement was based, reinforcing the notion that the land belonged to no one prior to the British Crown taking possession of it and quashing any likelihood of treaties with Aboriginal peoples, including that signed by John Batman. Its publication meant that from then, all people found occupying land without the authority of the government would be considered illeMassive areas of land were cleared for agriculture and various other purposes in the first 100 years of Europeans settlement. In addition to the obvious impacts this early clearing of land and importation of hard-hoofed animals had on the ecology of particular regions, it severely affected indigenous Australians, by reducing the resources they relied on for food, shelter and other essentials. This progressively forced them into smaller areas and reduced their numbers as the majority died of newly introduced diseases and lack of resources. Indigenous resistance against the settlers was widespread, and prolonged fighting between xxxx and the xxxxs led to the deaths of at least 20,000 indigenous people and between 2,000 and 2,500 Europeans.[156] During the mid-late 19th century, many indigenous Australians in south eastern Australia were relocated, often forcibly, to reserves and missions. The nature of many of these institutions enabled disease to spread quickly and many were closed as their populations fell.gal trespassers.[155] group in several colonies.[154]857 to work in education and social work.[147] The Sisters of St Joseph, were founded in South Australia by Saint Mary MacKillop and Fr Julian Tenison Woods in xxxx.[148][149][150] MacKillop travelled throughout Australasia and established schools, convents and charitable institutions. She was canonised by Benedict XVI in xxxx, becoming the first Australian to be so honoured by the Catholic Church.[151]the United States or Canada.[140]virtue among Australians. Lachlan Macquarie in xxxx.[136]everity of his punishments[135] convicts had fewer opportunities.f New Holland and New South Wales, published in November xxxx, contained "A General Chart of New Holland, including New South Wales & Botany Bay, with The Adjacent Countries, and New Discovered Islands", which showed all the territory claimed under the jurisdiction of the Governor oRomantic descriptions of the beauty, mild climate, and fertile soil of Norfolk Island in the South Pacific led the British government to establish a subsidiary settlement of the New South Wales colony there in xxxx. It was hoped that the giant Norfolk Island pine European explorers made their last great, often arduous and sometimes tragic expeditions into the interior of Australia during the second half of the 19th century?some with the official sponsorship of the colonial authorities and others commissioned by private investors. By xxxx, large areas of the inland were still unknown to Europeans. Trailblazers like Edmund Kennedy and the Prussian naturalist Ludwig Leichhardt, had met tragic ends attempting to fill in the gaps during the xxxxs, but explorers remained ambitious to discover new lands for agriculture or answer scientific enquiries. Surveyors also acted as explorers and the colonies sent out expeditions to discover the best routes for lines of communication. The size of expeditions varied considerably from small parties of just two or three to large, well-equipped teams led by gentlemen explorers assisted by smiths, carpenters, labourers and Aboriginal guides accompanied by horses, camels or bullocks.[169]trees and flax plants growing wild on the island might provide the basis for a local industry which, particularly in the case of flax, would provide an alternative source of supply to Russia for an article which was essential for making cordage and sails for the ships of the British navy. However, the island had no safe harbor, which led the colony to be abandoned and the settlers evacuated to Tasmania in xxxx.[127] The island was subsequently reVan Diemen's Land, now known as Tasmania, was settled in xxxx, following a failed attempt to settle at Sullivan Bay in what is now Victoria. Other British settlements followed, at various points around the continent, many of them unsuccessful. The East India Trade Committee recommended in xxxx that a settlement be established on the coast of northern Australia to forestall the Dutch, and Captain J.J.G. Bremer, RN, was commissioned to form a settlement between Bathurst Island and the Cobourg Peninsula. Bremer fixed the site of his settlement at Fort Dundas on Melville Island in xxxx and, because this wasThe Immigration Restriction Act xxxx was one of the first laws passed by the new Australian parliament. Aimed to restrict immigration from Asia (especially China), it found strong support in the national parliament, arguments ranging from economic protection to outright racism.[217] The law permitted a dictation test in any European language to be used to in effect exclude non-"white" immigrants. While the law allowed for the use of any European language, the English version was standardised and became known as the "Stewart" test after the Federal MP Stewart Parnaby who originally penned the exam.[218] The Labor Party wanted to protect "white" jobs and pushed for clearer restrictions. A few politicians spoke of the need to avoid hysterical treatment of the question. MP Bruce Smith said he had "no desire to see low-class Indians, Chinamen or Japanese...swarming into this country... But there is obligation...not (to) unnecessarily offend the educated classes of those nations"[219] Donald Cameron, a member from Tasmania, expressed a rare note of dissension in the parliament, saying that no race on earth had been "treated in a more shameful manner than have the Chinese...".[220] Outside parliament, Australia's first Catholic cardinal, Patrick Francis Moran was politically active and denounced anti-Chinese legislation as "unchristian".[221] The popular press mocked the cardinal's position and the small European population of Australia generally supported the legislation and remained fearful of being overwhelmed by an influx of non-British migrants from the vastly different cultures of the highly populated empires to Australia's north. well to the west of the boundary proclaimed in xxxx, proclaimed British sovereignty over all the territory as far west as Longitude 129 deg East.[128]-settled as a penal settlement in The Country Party (today's National Party) formed in xxxx to promulgate its version of agrarianism, which it called "Countrymindedness". The goal was to enhance the status of the graziers (operators of big sheep ranches) and small farmers, and secure subsidies for them.[251] Enduring longer than any other major party save the Labor party, it has generally operated in Coalition with the Liberal Party (since the xxxxs), becoming a major party of government in Australia?particularly in Queensland.xxxx.f New South Wales.[In Australia, the costs of major investment had traditionally been met by state and Federal governments and heavy borrowing from overseas was made by the governments in the xxxxs. A Loan Council set up in xxxx to coordinate loans, three quarters of which came from overseas.[259] Despite Imperial preference, a balance of trade was not successfully achieved with Britain. "In the five years from xxxx..to..xxxx, Australia bought 43.4% of its imports from Britain and sold 38.7% of its exports. Wheat and wool made up more than two thirds of all Australian exports," a dangerous reliance on just two export commodities.[260]126] and Frederick Meredith.[123]mproved supplies.[122]
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